Maori Ethnography

ENVIRONMENT*

The Maori people of  of the northern island New Zealand are a tribal Polynesian group that has resisted much of Western influence and remains sedentary on their islands and traditions. The tropical island environment of these people plays a huge role in the development of their lifestyle, culture, and biology. Rainfall averages pretty high in the mountainous and densely forested triple-canopy, averaging up to 15 meters of rainfall per year. This volcanic island is rich with nutrients and very wet, which fosters many beautiful flowers, plants, animals, and steady horticulture. Seasons on this island vary little and share one thing in common: rain. And when its not raining, its proximity to the equator makes sun exposure very intense and warm. There is little air pollution on this distant and secluded island making UV ray exposure particularly high. Before people settled on this island 900 years ago, there were no mammals and several were introduced by Europeans like deer. There are many flightless birds here, however the lack of game animals has led these people to look mostly to the open water for food and nourishment. The main stresses of living here are the rain and sun exposure. Throughout the heavily-gunned colonization of this island, there were some incredibly detrimental effects to this culture, though current Anglo-New Zealanders are generally more respectful to these indigenous people. Today they co-exist the best they ever have, which has allowed the Maori to keep many of their ancient traditions. In fact, the word "Maori" is a term they coined for themselves as the "Natural Ones" once they encountered white people for the first time some time in the 1600's. According to the 2006 census, 15% of the population in New Zealand is of Maori descent which is about 644,000 people.
Maori people, along with fellow Polynesians generally have darker skin as a result in increase melanin to protect against the sun's harmful rays. These people are also characteristically robust in stature due to a high diet of protein provided by the seafood (particularly seals and whales) and the high carbohydrate diet of potatoes.
Most "True" Maori's live in thatch huts in tiny and secluded villages as their ancestors did, yet many have assimilated into the 21st Century and would be indistinguishable in Western society if not for their dark skin and likely tribal tattoos. These people are very holistic and feel equal with the environment they depend on, so they have not over-exploited their habitat keeping their population levels steady. On an island, resources may often be scarce so naturally tribal conflict is VERY common. Also, their tribal warlike culture also causes heavy training from boyhood including lifting weights and combat training.  This also aided in the long-term biological "larger than average" characteristics of these people. These people usually endure longer than average lifespans because of a non-stressful lifestyle, steady food, and physical training. (1)

LANGUAGE
In Maori, the official language is called Te Reo Maori, of the Polynesian family of languages, as authorized by the Maori Language Commission. Maori words are very short, like one-syllable breaths, or long and complicated words difficult to pronounce to European language speakers. There is in fact a written language which could be dated back to the first Maori book published back in 1815 called E korao no New Zealand (Talk from New Zealand) by Thomas Kendall (2). The alphabet looks very similar to English due to Western colonization, though it has been modified to suit the sound and feel of the language. Also, facial expression is very instrumental in communication. The fact that there was no written Maori until 1815 shows the oral traditions of these people and the influence Europeans had on them. This written language is not to be confused with their "symbolic" language which is mostly represented in tattoos an art, which I will address later in the post.
 
GENDER ROLES
The natural and holistic viewpoint of the Maori culture plays a large role in their gender roles. Because they considered themselves equal in nature, they consider themselves equal in society. Though men are stronger and do the hunting, fishing, and fighting whilst women do the gathering and home-making, neither is valued more than the other. The close-knit tribes of generations of intermarrying families and clans illuminate the value everyone has in society. Male and female are only considered the "yin" and the "yang" (to be cross-culturally analytical) of  the reproduction of life; a compliment to eachother. Gender roles are loosely defined, if at all, because the egalitarian idea is all for one and on for all. The only major definition in gender is the training of young boys into men in the ways of combat and physical fitness to protect their way of life. Similarly, women teach the young girls in the tribe how to cook among other responsibilities while men are out fighting or hunting. (3)

SUBSISTENCE
Food and resources depend mostly on the bounty of the sea and the gathering of flora for shelter. The main source of food is seafood (fish, crustaceans, seals, etc.) however there are many flightless birds that provide protein as well. The island they live on has not been introduced to many large mammals, keeping their dependence for sustenance on the ocean. The steady and similar seasons and rich soil provide steady crops like yams and kumara. Tools and weapons were made from stone and wood. As their contact with Anglos continues, the true and traditional Maoris wane with time. In the same way the Inuits of the Arctic circle use modern rifles to hunt precious seals as they have for generations, these Maoris have shifted from using home-made nets and lines for fishing to modern tools. The infiltration of Western society has left these people no option but to adapt to perpetuate the survival of their ancient, and now different, cultures. With foreign diseases and Western governments, the Maori have certainly had to adapt to sustain. Similarly with adaptation to food provision, it would not be uncommon for Maori families to live in modern style houses. Even though there has been great pressure to adapt, secluded in the corners of New Zealand still have some true Maoris that live as they have for generations: untouched. (4)

ECONOMY

Notice in the picture the blurring of the Maori-European line in New Zealand with a Maori household boasting a picket fence; this house is far from the ancient thatch huts they used to live in

Non-modernized Maoris have no currency and had no set value for goods, however nowadays they may have to pay with legal tender to live on their ancestors land to someone who may have bought it, Euro-style. Currency to these people are practical goods like food and tools. The naturalistic view these people hold does not foster surplus or waste. These people generally store only what they need to survive and trade. There is no "glass ceiling" for these egalitarians, but men definitely bare the brunt of bringing in food, while women make clothes, tools, bowls and other hand-fashioned supplies.


Kinship

Tribal ceremony re-enacting arriving on Aotearoa by canoe

Marriage can best be understood when considering the Maori idea of kinship first.The ancient legend of how the original Maoris landed on Aotearoa (Land of the Long, White Cloud, which is their name for New Zealand),  goes back over 25 generations at this point. They left their larger home islands, like Tahiti and the Philippines on 13 large canoes to seek an uninhabited island that they could dwell in peace. These canoes still identify these peoples relationships centuries later.
Maori society is organized into about about 30 tribes (iwis), which contains 13 canoes (wakas), all of which can be traced back to the canoes their ancestors arrived on. Genealogy, or whakapapa, means "to set layer upon layer" and is traced by identifying a parent, grandparent, canoe, then tribe. (5)
Descent is unilineal in that relation can be traced through a man or a woman. Most Maori's operate in tribes lead by a Chief who is in charge of their genealogy and traditions. The fact that descent can be traced through a man or woman shows the egalitarian ideals that these people represent, though men are usually in charge, they do not see themselves as "better" or "higher", just more naturally well equipped to do the job. Chiefs are the most important people and are related to nearly everyone in the tribe, usually due to many wives and inheriting authority. He is responsible for carrying all the oral and practical traditions of his tribe. There is no right to property by this Chieftain authority. Their egalitarian viewpoint allows the dying person to bequeath his mortal possessions to whom he pleases and owes no tribute to the Chief or anyone else.


Marriage

Newlywed Maori couple blessed by Chief

Like many Polynesian cultures, young people are expected to engage in sexual activity with many partners before finally a marriage is arranged by the senior members of their household or whanau. This arranged marriage is to link other families with newly related kin through marriage and offspring to strengthen the bond within the tribe. Though marrying between canoes and families is common, marrying between tribes is not. This intermarrying would be very limited if first and second cousins were not considered eligible mates. Marriage is typically monogamous, though Chiefs took many wives to proliferate their ancestral authority and wealth through dowry. The naturalistic and egalitarian viewpoint allows married spouses to separate simply upon agreement, though this may complicate the household. Households were usually led by a founding male, his spouses, their unmarried offspring, and also married offspring with their children (imagine how big a house needed to be to hold 3 generations of big people!)
Sexual taboos like incest and homosexuality are not of big concern to these people. Sexuality is very free and it is well understood that incest an homosexuality may be okay for messing around, but the reality is to proliferate ones genealogy, the only way to set the "layers on layers" is with hetero child-rearing.

Social Organization

Maori Waka (canoe)

Maori social stratification follows the Tribe, Canoe, Extended family hierarchy. Each extended-family consists of usually 3 generations and has a head or elder that either founded that family or is the longest living relative of that family. Several of those family elders come together, united under one canoe. Thirteen inter-related canoes constitute a tribe of which has a Chief, or head-unit of authority. Authority is inherited and traditional in this culture. There is no police force or legislation division. If the Chief declares a punishment or civil action, for the sake of tradition it is carried out by no specific member of the tribe, if not many. Though this may seem patriarchal, imagine the King and Queen of England: though the King is the most sovereign of the land, the Queen still yields authority. This is true of the Maoris as the authority trickles down the hierarchy to the basic family unit of mother and father. However this is only true still in the "True" and untouched Maoris. Due to Westernization and Western forms of governing people in a land, Maoris have had to send delegates to parliament and other official Western governing bodies to maintain a "fair" representation for their people whose hierarchy holds no weight in the New Zealand court of law. This is another example of cultural adaptation to maintain the traditions that define these people. (6)

Political Structure

Maori Chief

Each Maori family nucleus (father, mother, and offspring) are all part of a family. The parents are sovereign over their children. The extended family that nucleus belongs to is governed by few elders who are sovereign over that branch of extended family. Those elders have one leader of their canoe that is passed through heritage, not election. The leaders of the thirteen canoes of a tribe are overseen by a Chief, which is also determined by bloodline. Each tribe consists of 13 canoes. There are about 30 original tribes of Maori who are considered equal. Alliances and feuds have been very common to these steadfast and aggressive people who will fight to the death for the perpetuation of their tribe, canoe, and family. Living on an island with many other groups of people that are not entirely related to them has created a lot of warring between tribes through the generations.





VIOLENCE
In my opinion, the cultural attitudes of violence among these people is the most fascinating element of the Maori. Though they believe in overall peace, equality, and unity in nature, on an island with 30 other tribes, conflict is inevitable. Though wars cost the lives of loved-ones and destroy villages, it is considered a necessary evil and a scale of which a man measures himself by: his ability to fight. Maori boys are trained from youth to be fearless in combat and equally skilled. The most recognizable manifestation of this value of violence is the world-known Haka dance. It is a pre-battle dance that involves the unison of the fighting tribe slapping and beating their chests while chanting in unison and making faces at the enemy to scare them and warn them of their unity and bravery in battle. This haka also has psychological effects on those that practice it by bringing them up to a war-like trance, preparing themselves to charge into their own deaths. This chant is replicated in many Maori ceremonies and often times by professional sports teams like the New Zealand Rugby All-Blacks, who chant their national Haka before each match.

RELIGION

This scary face carving is to ward of bad spirits

The holistic and natural viewpoint that supersedes all other elements of Maori culture is their religion. The same spirit and life-force or mana that is in all humans is derived from nature. They consider themselves part of the natural world as much as the trees and ocean that surrounds them. There is no name for their reliogion other than "Traditional Maori." As much as descendents from their original canoes to New Zealand, descendent plays as large a role in their religion. Each different element of nature has a different title for its manifestation. For example, Tane is the personification of the forest that bore human young, of which the original humans are related to. Maori believe that through their descent from the original Polynesian islands that they themselves are descendents of the different personifications of nature. Similar to the idea of Gaia, these people believe in a life spirit in nature that dwells in all Maori an does not leave the body to return to nature until the body is buried. One unique ritual is their belief that lizards are tool of the evil spirit in nature, and that lizards appear to bring bad luck and eat the life force of those it contacts. Many Maori houses are built over dead remains of lizards to ward off bad luck. The function of this religion is instrumental in all facets of Maori life. The understanding that everyone and thing is an equal part of nature reinforces their egalitarian marriages, politics, art, social structure, and economics. (7)

ART
1. Artwork

Different layers represent each generation

Visual art is most commonly expressed by the Maori in the form of tattooing; particularly the face and shoulder. Most men, and nearly all warriors have most of their faces tattooed with traditional lines, triangles, and waves. Tattoos represent lineage in the Maori culture. For example, a man will get a tattoo of certain lines, triangles, and waves that represents his father, grandfather, and himself. Once he has a son, he will add on to the tattoo to represent his son. His son will get the same tattoo in the same order until he has a son. Like the Maori word for genealogy, this whakapapa literally represents layers building on layers of descendents to the original canoes, and moreover, the spirits of Earth. The manner in which they tattoo also reflects what the tattoos look like. They don't use a modern tattoo gun, they use a series of inked needles in a line and smash them into the skin. Lines, triangles, an some waves are a result of the primitive limitations of tattooing.
2. Music
Music is traditionally sung in the Maori culture however there are some woodwind and percussion instruments. The chants in the native tongue accompanied by drums or flutes are usually to glorify legends of descendence, origin, or victory in battle. Today their music is generally performed as a cultural exhibition to expose their ancient lifestyle to the otherwise ignorant.
3. Performance
Their songs and dances are usually for celebration, like a marriage, or the haka, for battle. Some theatrics are woven into spoken an sung orations of history, usually all celebratory. They don't have pure "dramas" that are for entertainment value only.
4. Religious Art
Considering the focus on heritage and nature, all buildings represent a founding family member, posts are carved with scary faces to war away spirits, tattoos also serve similar purposes to enemies. These people are their own artwork and representation of their naturalistic religion.

CONCLUSION
Though the Maori have endured long since their first European contact centuries ago, their traditions, cultures, and folkways have waned unceasingly ever since. These people have been forced to adapt if they want to live in their villages traditionally, or assimilate and give into the Western lifestyle of commodity that has been pressed on them. Much like the Native Americans of the U.S. on reservations or in the general population, the Maori have adopted a Neo-Traditionalism that allows them to cope with the Western pressure while maintaining their rich heritage. Though they'll never be the same, they're doing their best to still be primitive yet hold representation in local and national legislation. They are protected to a certain degree by their "occupiers" yet still oppressed. The resilience in their blood that has been proudly passed down proudly for generations indicates to me that these people will never go away, but may wane to endangerment. Whether is people Western land-rights, or commercial over-fishing, this primitive way of life is out-gunned and out-numbered. The role the Maori play in the modern world is perpetuated by the few who bear Maori blood. Their proud face tattoos, robust form, and commitment to bravery are examples to the modern world who bind down around them that a proud people once stood and will stand on Aotearoa so long as a single Maori heart is left to beat.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 * http://www.tourism.net.nz/new-zealand/about-new-zealand/weather-and-climate.html#weathermap
(1)http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-BesMaor-c1.html
(2)http://www.omniglot.com/writing/maori.htm
(3)http://www.mwa.govt.nz/women-in-nz/maoriwomen/role-of-women
(4)http://www.everyculture.com/Oceania/Maori-Economy.html
(5)Haviland, Prins, McBride, and Dana Walrath. Cultural Anthropology The Human Challenge (p. 218-19)
(6)http://www.maori.info/maori_society.htm
(7)http://history-nz.org/maori6.html

Art as a Culture

1. Functions of Early Art
 A. The cave artists were trying to express the most important elements of survival and life in their seasonal form. The spatial layout of the caves, markings on the animals, and location of the paintings suggests their value to the people drew them and their dependance on time to create future yields.
B. I think there were more animals painted because there were more animals than people at that early point in human history. Furthermore, those animals sustained life by providing those early people with food and tools.
C. These paintings can tell us that these Paleolithic people intelligent enough to adapt and distinguish themselves from animals. Humans lives, in most cultures, are considered more sacred than "animal" lives. Also, the fact of cave dwelling and evidence of hunting proves that they understood and provided sound shelter for themselves an knew when to take the necessary dangers of hunting to survive. This sophistication cannot be found in animals.
D. A significant  difficulty these people face were supplies to paint and where to paint. Different colors has to be laboriously made from natural products that were local enough to use a high amount of. Also, they have to physically reach high and deep into these caves. Even by today's standards, making all the resources necessary to make these paintings would be very labor intensive, proving the value theses paintings had to these people.
E. One speculation of function of early art would be as an expression of accomplishment for surviving an thriving in a world where natural selection dominates. Another would be to provide an example for following humans of the seasons that the earth offers and how to manipulate their environment. Lastly, I think the art reflected early human understandings of beauty. An appreciate of what life has to offer.

2. Commonalities in Function
The most common thing I see in art is the value of life that is expressed. From the Lascaux Caves we see that early humans wanted to leave a visual mark on how they endured life, and today art is an attempt to recreate the feeling someone experiences when encountering beauty, which to modern and old people are the same. Notice these cave paintings didn't express the trifles in life, like sleeping against a rock or something else trivial. Also in modern art nobody awes at the beauty of a painting of a guy washing his hands in the bathroom. Humans like art. We like to see paintings of sunsets, sculptures, creations of inanimate objects that apply to the human experience.

3. My Favorite Art
A. This painting is called "Liberty Leading the People." This Romantic form of art is an expression of a nations sacrifice and bloodshed to achieve the liberty they all united for. Though a shirtless woman did not in fact relieve France of their tyranny, "Lady Liberty" is a manifestation of the ideal of freedom and beauty.
B. There is a form to this picture because the dress and attire of the people shows the blending of middle and lower classes to oppose their governments. A boy pauper in the painting represents the resources required to succeed; risking the life of a youth. Also a man in a proper Top Hat is fighting to represent a middle class.
C. This kind of art benefits society because it allows a moment in time to resonate and endure for all generations to come. The same way that hunting was a victory an defining moment of time for the Lascaux people, someone who experienced the French Revolution wanted the future generations to mortality and morality.

Politics and Violence

1. Killings in western culture are usually out of contempt for that person but usually not revenge for them having killed someone. Except maybe in street gangs where people eliminate threats to power, the Yanomamo kill because of fights escalating out of anger. Usually over reproductive or survival resources.

2.Deaths do not seem to happen "naturally" among these people but rather because of revenge or mysterious deaths can be attributed to magic or curses brought about. Revenge is necessary among these people or else they appear cowardly and subject to attack.

3. Being unokais is a good thing because that means that you have done your due diligence to make known who you were killing and why so things appear fair and square. If you do a revenge killing withouth it being know, you yourself and a prime target to have revenge brought on you.

4.

5.The laws that enforce killing is a representation of societies values. Human life is valued so much, that if you take it from someone, it is only fair to take it from you as an example for other not to do it and as retribution for such an action.

Kinship

1. My "Ego" subject this week is my father, Joe Penich. He's a 60-year-old single man from slums of East Los Angeles that lived through the turbulent 60's and 70's and became a businessman, of which are mostly the kind of people he associates with at this point in this life. He was married to my mother for several years then divorced 20 years ago. This divorce was contrary to his very traditional Croatian Roman-Catholic upbringing, which hurt him to do but he considered a necessary evil.

2. The interview was very easy for both of us because we are both very interested in the idea of passing family insight on to the next generation. It was certainly not awkward because there was a sense of pride experienced by both of us. On my behalf, I was proud to hear about my lineage and traditions that have held up for centuries and require me to pass them on. On my fathers behalf, he was elated to know how interested his own son was in our Croatian traditions and heritage. Fortunately for me there are not areas of tension when considering my kinship. It could be very emotional for someone to divulge information about family if they have been neglected, abused, or harmed by their own kin.

3. My father's side of the family is incredibly close, small, and Yugoslav traditional. We may not be many but we are proud and resilient. Dinner is not just a meal but an obligation to the family. Meeting in the evening is for reflecting with each other, not just eating. If someone is to miss out on dinner, they have better have a very good reason to do so or else the others may be offended or feel neglected. Our family is small so there are no "older" individuals left (other than my dad.) But he says when he was a kid that whatever Nana (grandma) and Dida (grandpa) says, goes. Though my mother was a non-Croat, my grandparents were accepting as a bride for their son (as long as she would have a Catholic wedding at a Croatian church), though surely they would've preferred an ethnic Slav for continuities sake. An interesting note, my father's side is 100% Croat, my mother's side is all non-thoroughbred Europeans. Slavic continuity was always valuable.

4. I do know relatives on both sides of the family and we do get along well, hanging out as much as we can fit in our schedules. On my father's side, the fact that we're related is enough reason to like someone unconditionally. However on my mother's side, there have been several instances where family members are no longer on speaking terms because of spats or arguments. There is 0% chance of a family member being excommunicated on my fathers side, however with my mother's family many of them would not hesitate to disown anyone if they jeopardized their own pride.
The only two people to enter my dad's family was my mother (until they divorced) and my aunt's husbad, and they were both received very well by our family. Also, there is no gender discrimination in my family, any judgement is based on character and positively biased for being related.
A valuable insight I learned from this exercise is how different my parents family function. My father's side is all tradition, my mothers side is a void of tradition thereof.

Subsistence and Economy

Part 1:
1. A key benefit to hunting for sustenance is you are highly unlikely to over-hunt (not true in modern time because of industry efficient, but this is for profit and not sustenance) and nature takes care of all the replenishing the stock and maintenance thereof. Also, bones and other animals parts can be used as tools and not just food. Agriculture is beneficial because with fair weather you can guarantee a certain amount of yielded food, offering an opportunity to grow extra and trade.
2. A disadvantage to hunting is a high potential for a failed hunt. If there is a drought there is likely to be less food roaming around, also, you can go out hunting and not find a single animal to eat. Similarly, growing food can be fickle when considering weather and the right soil. Access to water is a necessity, so there is potential for failure.
3. Agriculture is healthier yet more dangerous. To have a steady food supply versus foraging and hoping for the best is obviously better because it keeps people fed consistently. However, consistent food supply leads to overpopulation or disease, which can eliminate all the benefits. Biologically, it is better to eat vegetable every day than saved meat that comes in only as fast as one can hunt for it.
4. I believe most cultures changed to an agricultrual lifestyle because it is sedentary and consistent, both of which foster population growth. Also, being able to grow extra food allows you an opportunity to trade your "wealth" for more wealth or supplies, increasing mortality rates.

Part 2:
1. "There is a direct relationship between the availability of surplus and the ability to trade." This means that one cannot trade if one does not have a surplus of commodities. For example, if you have medication that keeps you from dying, you probably wouldn't trade it for anything, unless you have plenty of extra and a means of acquiring more. If you didn't, you might have a surplus but you would have no ability to trade because you may not be able to get more of your vital medication. Food and supplies were the first form of currency because they are like medication that keeps you alive.
2. Two social benefits of trade would be wealth and health. If you are healthy, you can operate successfully in society. If you trade with entrepreneurship you have a potential of accruing wealth, which often means prestige and power in many cultures.
3. Two social negatives of trade would be greediness and availability. If there is a limit to supply in a culture, and someone has used their resources to corner a market, there may be less vital supplies in circulation due to a solidification of a greedy persons assets. Also, trade means people to trade with. If there are no roads or designated places to trade, where can a nomad trade for supplies with a sedentary person?
4. The development of agriculture fostered trade. When hunting and gathering, it is very difficult and time consuming to gather or hunt more than what is needed to survive. When engaging in agricultural, it is just as difficult to plant 10 crops to survive as it is to plant 15 crops to have extra. This extra can be considered "profit."

Language

Part 1.
I found this part of the experiment was easy. I did not tell the person I was conducting the experiment with and they were none wiser the whole time. I simply used facial expressions and non verbal sounds like sighs or winces, and things like that. It helped that this particular person it a bit long-winded as far as talking goes, but they had no idea I wasn't talking on purpose. As far as two cultures meeting and who has an advantage on conveying complex ideas, I would say the person who did not speak would have an advantage. If you depend on language with someone who doesn't know how to speak it, simple or complex ideas cannot be communicated. However, they way someone feels, which is complex, can be conveyed very easily with non-verbal gestures. People who are deaf are people have a difficult time moving through society because most of society cannot SEE that they are deaf and do not know how to speak sign language, however both groups can still read emotional expressions.

Part 2.
I was able to last the entire 15 minutes of only using speech (probably because I was driving and didn't have to look at the person directly). I could tell that my experiment partner noticed I was "being weird" and grew frustrated. This proves that the use of signs like inflecting your voice at the end of a question can sound normal after a while, and failing to do so can be "weird" if you are not used to it. How you say something can almost be as important as what you say in our society. From being somber to cheery, the way you say something can affect the way someone receives the communication. People who don't pick up body language signs usually have bad social timing which makes them seem awkward. However, I've been in very snowy conditions of -50 degrees Fahrenheit in which clothing is packed on  so tight it is hard enough to move let alone gesture something (other than shivering.)

Part 3.
I do not think it would be easier to use written language because I find that through my daily text messaging, my sarcasm doesn't translate very well, which causes people to take written language too literally.
Written language is a huge benefit overall because words and symbols can be standardized to bring large groups of people to a common ground of communication and writing. In the English realm, anyone who can read English can pick up anything I write and know what I'm saying.

Adaptation

Andean Native Americans


1.) The Andes Mountain range is the longest mountain range in the world, stretching over 4,500 miles across South America from north to south. The northern section of the range is humid and warm because it is so close to the equator and the southern half is much colder and drier because of its distance from the equator. Average rainfall in the southern section is about 8 inches in the summer and 4 in the winter with average temperatures in the 60 degree range, and the north gets rain nearly all year round with average temperatures in the 70's. The high altitude of the range calls for significant adaption among plants and animals, such as the plants being small, stout, and strong to conserve energy with an unstable water supply and low oxygen, however in the north plants are much more robust due to warmer temperatures and constant rain. *

2.) The Native Andean, who live in several countries along the mountain range like Peru, Chile, etc., have a few high-altitude adaptations that allow them to maintain a homeostasis in low oxygen environments. They have developed wider arteries and extra hemoglobin in their blood to make the most of the little oxygen they are exposed to. People with weaker hearts are very susceptible to altitude sickness and will notice low oxygen immediately, however these peoples have developed strong hearts and big lungs over several generations.

 

3.) I think the race of these people would best be identified as Indians or Native Americans. Because they came across on the land-bridge from Alaska several thousand years ago, I think they are very similar in genetic composition and rituals as their North American counterparts; they just went farther south and adapted differently.






South African Zulu

1.) The native Zulu of South Africa are exposed to an environment of high radiation due to sunlight almost all year round. The constant heat and sun exposure is the major variable of maintaining a homeostasis in South Africa. Average summer temperatures are in the high 70's with average rainfall of less than 10 inches per year.**

2.) The Zulu people that inhabit southern Africa are usually very dark skinned, tall, and slender. The dark skin is caused by an increased level of melanin which acts as a radiation blocker, and being tall and slender allow for more surface area to expel excess body heat.

Dark skin and slender build helps protect radiation and over-heating

3.) I think that the Zulu people fall under the Black race. For obvious reasons these people are called black, but share traits with other members of their race found in different parts of the world.



Summary:

Cultural adaptions have much more explaining power when attempting to describe a race than appearance. African Americans are black by race, but are more likely to have light skin than their native African counterparts because their western lifestyle doesn't select for dark skin any more.


* http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_climate_page.htm
**  http://goafrica.about.com/library/bl.weather.southafrica.htm